Born in Blood and Fire: A Concise History of Latin America

It is impossible to discuss Latin American history without the word “colonial.” In contrast, when one learns of United States history, the term colonial rarely surfaces, and colonial times is often described as pre-revolutionary. The reason for this is that, following independence, the United States walked a far different path than any nation in Latin America. The reasons for this are myriad, but what is most important is that Latin America continued to struggle with the effects of colonialism long after the smoke of revolution settled. Though Latin American nations gained independence from Spain or Portugal, they were unable to slough the yoke of colonial dominance as easily as the US.

Colonialism in Latin America, instituted by Spain and Portugal, established a hegemony whose roots buried themselves deep in the Latin American psyche. Spanish and Portuguese colonizers, borrowing ideas already developed in Iberia during the wars for reconquest, sought to dominate an Indigenous population that far outnumbered any amount of colonists Spain or Portugal could send. Aside from the need for control to meet the economic goals of the Europeans, the colonizers held a near universal view of the need for missionary work, the need to convert the Indigenous people to the True Faith (i.e., Catholicism). The result of a physical and spiritual conquering mindset was the establishment of a rigid society where the wealthy few (Europeans), who also possessed the military means to carry out their goals, reigned over a caste system of mestizos, Indigenous peoples, and enslaved people. The colonial period lasted roughly 300 years in Latin America, providing ample time for the ideas of colonial hegemony to fossilize. However, a movement developed in the 18th century in the more liberal European lands called Enlightenment, which caused the ideas of divine right and traditional hegemony to be questioned by many.

Ideas from the Enlightenment influenced social and political change not only in Europe but also in the Americas. Enlightenment ideas fueled the cause of revolution and independence in North America and resulted in the United States. Though these ideas did not directly result in revolution in Latin America, they influenced it greatly. Thinkers and revolutionists like Miguel Hidalgo or Simón Bolívar studied Enlightenment thinking, which built the foundation for revolution. However, the struggle for independence would not fully begin until after Napoleon invaded and toppled the monarchy of Spain and caused the Portuguese to flee to Brazil. Of course, the rise of Napoleon can also be traced back to the Enlightenment. The fact that the wars for independence were sparked by an outside influence rather than coming from within had a tremendous impact on the struggles following independence. The greatest problem facing every nation in the post-colonial era was political stability, which stemmed from disunity among the ruling elite. Too many leaders, and even those among the general population, struggled to move beyond colonialism and fully embrace independence. The society created by colonialism in Latin America continued after independence. Thus, the rhetoric of the liberals who sought to overturn and drastically change Latin American society floundered and eventually failed for many decades. Therefore, for many people, there was little change in the social, economic, and political environment following independence. For some, it was as if nothing had changed.

Latin American nations also faced many economic problems. They were never able to develop and grow (for numerous reasons) in the same way as the United States, for example; thus, they remained dependent on and dominated by European powers, predominantly the French and British, and eventually the United States. This economic dominance gained the term neocolonialism because it resembled in many ways events and experiences of the colonial period. During the last half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th, Latin American nations experienced foreign dominance of specific economic sectors (e.g., agriculture and the banana republics, United Fruit, etc.), and gunboat diplomacy, which meant military intervention by Europe or the US in order to force the government (of whichever nation in Latin America) to comply with their demands.

Following the end of the Second World War, though Europe lay in ruins, Soviet Russia and the United States emerged as two rival, global powers that sought allegiances from various nations. Though, the Cold War era is not associated with neocolonialism regarding Latin America, the dependence of US goodwill, investment and aid mirrored experiences born from colonialism. Furthermore, if a nation broke ties with the US, which dominated the Americas, it had to seek aid from the USSR (case in point, Cuba). When the Iron Curtain fell, leaving the US unchallenged, Latin America continued to struggle with balancing its own goals and meeting the demands of the US. Europe, too, was regaining strength. In 1982, Argentina attempted to conquer the Falkland Islands (islands to the east of Buenos Aires) but lost the war against the British. Cuba continues to struggle against US economic embargos. During the presidency of Hugo Chavez of Venezuela, his political views and direct confrontation of US hegemony isolated Venezuela from the US and those nations that did kowtow to US demands. Thus, even at the end of the 20th century, Latin America still feels remnants of colonialism.