98 pages • 3 hours read
The Adventures of Ulysses
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Themes
The Hero’s Purpose, in Greek Mythology and Today
Ulysses is one of the earliest literary adventure heroes. His exploits are those of a person of superior strength and skill, yet his greatness lies as much in his character as in his abilities.
Ulysses has many positive attributes. He descends from the god Hermes, who gives him superior strength, intelligence, and fortitude. No one can defeat him in athletic contests. His courage and power on the battlefield are second only to his fellow Greek warriors Achilles and Ajax, who also descend, in part, from gods. Ulysses is a wise king, a dedicated leader, and a crafty strategist. He treats others fairly. Of noble character, he’s willing even to fight monstrous deities to achieve his purpose.
Such heroes are “mythic” because they inherit some of their powers from the mythical gods. (Northrop Frye. Anatomy of Criticism. Princeton University Press, 1957, 2020.) Audiences look up to them and wonder what they could accomplish with Ulysses’s abilities. Mythic heroes today predominantly take the form of superheroes such as Superman, Carol “Captain Marvel” Danvers, Black Panther, and Wonder Woman, who lives on a Greek island and descends from Zeus.
Like the gods, Ulysses is flawed. He behaves arrogantly in victory over the Cyclops, which incurs Poseidon’s unending wrath. His affairs with Circe and Calypso strain his commitment to Penelope. He nearly gives up in the face of Poseidon’s relentless, punishing storms. In each case, though, Ulysses accepts the problem, corrects his mistake if he can, and continues toward his goal of returning to family and kingdom.
Ancient Greek warriors live for the honor of battle. If their honor is besmirched, they will go to great lengths to regain it. Ajax killed himself when denied Achilles’s armor. Ulysses stops at nothing to recover his kingdom and avenge those who stain his reputation by mistreating his family and sullying his castle.
Though stubbornly determined, Ulysses never pouts; nor, with the exception of his encounter with the Cyclops, does he behave cruelly. Cruelty is a coward’s way; there is neither virtue nor heroism in that.
Courage is an attribute of honor. Calypso asks Ulysses why he doesn’t want to spend eternity as an immortal with her. He answers, “I cannot be immortal, never to die, never to grow old. What use is courage then?” (119) Ulysses prays to the gods: If they refuse to let him return to his family and restore the honor of his kingdom, he begs them to kill him so that at least he can dwell in the afterlife with his men. Struggling aimlessly isn’t for Ulysses. Heroes must complete their quests or die.
Calypso resents that the gods want Ulysses to leave her and continue struggling on his lengthy voyage. Hermes explains to her that “it is fated that he find his way home” (122-23). It’s the hero’s destiny to be heroic; it can’t be avoided.
The Wisdom of Determination
Many times during his 10 years of wandering, Ulysses feels tempted to abandon his quest to return home. Each time, he remembers his guiding purpose and continues onward.
Poseidon, angry with Ulysses for injuring his son the Cyclops, sends the warrior one storm or monster after another. Winds blast him far off course, floating rocks keep him on the path toward danger, and son. Cyclopes, giants on Cannibal Beach, Sirens, and monsters like Scylla and Charybdis contribute to the large collection of dangers, deliberate and accidental, that the wandering voyagers must face because Poseidon constantly drives them off-course.
The sea god sends so many storms, including two that destroy his vessels, that Ulysses sometimes wants to give up. Clinging to the remains of one scuttled sea craft, Ulysses wonders, “Why don’t I let myself drown?” (125) Out of sheer stubbornness, he keeps fighting to live, and his determination is rewarded by the nymph Ino, whose veil speeds his swim toward dry land.
Two goddesses lure him with their magical charms, and for a time Ulysses succumbs to each. He knows, however, that he must return to Ithaca, reunite with his family, and reclaim his throne; this knowledge tears him away from the temptresses. Ulysses leaves their comfort knowing full well that he will likely face further torment from Poseidon, but he is determined to get home.
Ulysses overcomes every challenge, armed with strength, skills, and smarts, but also with an unceasing determination to achieve his true goal and return to his home. This single objective steers his hopes and dreams and keeps him on course. Steadfastness guides his decisions; his success lies as much in that sense of commitment as in any other trait. Without the goal constantly in front of him, Ulysses might have abandoned his quest or drowned, and no one would know, and few would care, about his exploits.
Flawed Gods and Foolish People
Much of the story turns on impulsive acts by men and gods. Ulysses makes a critical error early on and incurs the wrath of a god; his men act foolishly and make their situation worse. The gods themselves strive against the humans for petty reasons. Each of these decisions pushes the plot in a new direction; together, these acts suggest that, in human as well as divine life, sometimes it’s the mistakes that matter most.
A simple oversight—Thetis forgets to invite the goddess Eris to her wedding—leads to a contest between goddesses that results in a queen’s abduction and 10 years of war.
Ulysses makes one of the worst mistakes. After assuming the name “Nobody” and wounding the Cyclops Polyphemus, Ulysses insults him and reveals his real name. Polyphemus happens to be the son of the sea god Poseidon, who reacts angrily when he hears the Cyclops’s plaintive prayer and decides to visit destruction on Ulysses. The story thereafter moves forward on Poseidon’s destructive punishments and Ulysses’s responses.
Though brave and faithful, Ulysses’s men suffer their own human weaknesses. They fall prey to paranoia, greed, and lust; this makes things worse for their commander and themselves. On the first leg of their journey home from the Trojan War, the men spy a prosperous island community and beg Ulysses to let them raid it. The raid turns into a rout, leaving the men worse off than before. Ulysses manages to guide the fleet nearly to home when two sailors, believing a large bag contains Ulysses’s hoarded treasure, cut the bag open and release winds that drive the ships far from their destination. The crewmen later fall prey to hunger and roast sacred cattle, which leads directly to their deaths at the hands of Poseidon.
The gods are no slouches when it comes to causing trouble. Poseidon nurses a grudge against Ulysses, constantly sending storms to thwart him. He punishes anyone who aids Ulysses, including the Phaeacian sailors who deliver him to Ithaca, whom Poseidon turns to stone. Divine winds harass Ulysses’s fleet; monsters try to kill him and his men; sorceresses trap them.
A few deities brave Poseidon’s wrath and come to Ulysses’s aid—especially Athene, who dislikes Poseidon’s pouty vendetta and steps in to alter events to Ulysses’s advantage. Hermes advises Ulysses on how to deal with Circe. A nymph saves the hero’s life at sea. Underworld ghosts offer Ulysses important advice and warnings that help him navigate the dangers he must face.
The upshot is that life would be a good deal less interesting if not for foolish human mistakes combined with the arbitrary intervention of natural forces, some of them divinely inspired mayhem.
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