Written in Bone: Buried Lives of Jamestown and Colonial Maryland

“As they find, excavate, and analyze these objects—including skeletons—archaeologists help us understand the past more fully and reclaim the histories of individuals who had been forgotten with the passage of time.”

Establishing the importance of Connecting the Historical Record to Archaeological Evidence, Walker contends that archaeologists play an active role in uncovering and preserving history through their meticulous work. This process not only fills gaps in the historical record but also brings to light the lived experiences of individuals who either did not or could not leave behind written accounts. By uncovering and interpreting physical remnants, archaeologists contribute to a more nuanced and complete understanding of history, ensuring that the contributions and stories of all people are acknowledged and preserved.

“Jamestown quickly outgrew the area of James Fort. The materials used in the fort’s construction were removed and used for other building projects.”

The removal and reuse of construction materials meant that physical evidence of the fort’s existence was fragmented and dispersed, complicating efforts to piece together an accurate historical narrative. This made the task of archaeologists more difficult, as they had to rely on fewer and often scattered clues to understand the original layout and functions of key sites. Walker often draws attention to the challenges of archaeological investigation to paint it as a demanding yet rewarding discipline.

“The members of the Rediscovery Project team studied historical documents and listened to oral traditions, stories that people pass down verbally from one generation to the next.”

Oral traditions preserve the cultural and historical knowledge of communities that might not have documented their experiences in written form. They are particularly significant for those who already face erasure due to race or socioeconomic status, including Indigenous peoples, enslaved Africans, and lower-class colonists who may not have had the means, opportunity, or desire to document their experiences in writing. The Jamestown Rediscovery Project’s approach acknowledged that written records alone are insufficient and that oral histories provide valuable insights that might otherwise be overlooked.

“Here was the confirmation the archaeologists had sought: the shape and pattern of the soil stains could have been made only by the palisade walls of James Fort.”

This quote emphasizes the importance of physical evidence in confirming historical hypotheses, which underscores The Role of Science in Understanding Human History. Archaeologists rely on tangible proof to validate their theories, and even subtle traces in the earth can provide that confirmation. This reflects the scientific method’s emphasis on empirical evidence, which is crucial for constructing accurate historical narratives.

“While this process may sound revolting to us, it’s actually a fundamental step in the cycle of life.”

Walker seeks to make scientific concepts accessible to a young audience by putting herself in their shoes. Assuming that not every reader will have her level of knowledge about the cycle of life, she acknowledges readers’ potential emotional reaction. She then describes the decaying process in detail, using a factual tone to describe a process that children might have thought of as disgusting and thus encouraging them to rethink their preconceptions.

“On a scale of one to ten, with ten being a skeleton in perfect condition, Hudgins estimated the condition of the boy’s skeleton at only a three or four.”

To give Walker an easier way to measure the quality of a skeleton, the archaeologist Hudgins used a numerical value. Presenting it with a scale allows the reader to contextualize the information. Since the number is low, they can infer that the remains were not well preserved in comparison to other skeletons.

“The ridge at the back of the Jamestown teen’s skull, a slightly heavier brow ridge, and a squared chin were characteristic of a male skull.”

Archaeologists look at a variety of features in a skeleton before making a final judgment. While a trained specialist like Owsley can look quickly at a skeleton and make a preliminary guess, a detailed look at the skull can provide definitive proof. Other body parts such as the pelvis can also provide clues, but Walker explains that is not as useful with skeletons of children and adolescents.

“At first, the injury would have caused intense pain, particularly at mealtimes, because the exposed pulp chamber would have been extremely sensitive to cold and heat. The boy probably covered the broken tooth with his lower lip and tongue to protect the exposed nerve from hot and cold foods.”

Walker gives a vivid description of JR1225B’s injury to bring his story to life. In addition to describing the injury, she also notes how he might have dealt with it and how his life would have been affected. JR1225B becomes a real person who ate food and dealt with pain—just like the reader.

“His disappearance from the historical record suggests he may have died in 1607.”

The absence of evidence from the historical record can be evidence itself. However, that is usually not enough in and of itself for historians to confirm someone’s identity. It is simply one of the clues used in determining identity, providing an indication of when the person was alive. Walker consistently stresses that historical research requires drawing together a great deal of disparate evidence, often across various disciplines.

“The area where the Captain was buried has sandy soil with a very different consistency than the clay-filled soil that surrounded the graves of JR1225B and the other colonists buried within James Fort.”

This quote showcases the role of science in understanding human history. It illustrates how scientific knowledge about soil composition and drainage can directly impact the interpretation of historical remains. This detail reinforces the idea that archaeological findings are deeply influenced by their environmental context.

“Putting together the forensic exam, the isotope analysis, and his knowledge of colonial social classes, Owsley concluded that the Captain had been a gentleman, a member of the educated upper class.”

Forensic anthropology requires a multidisciplinary approach. On their own, the various pieces of evidence Walker cites would not have been enough to identify the Captain; likewise, Owsley could not have done it on his own. This shows how historical and social knowledge can contextualize scientific data and thus reconstruct the life and status of individuals from the past. This comprehensive analysis allows researchers to make informed interpretations about historical figures.

“As Kelso put it, ‘We’ve got Bartholomew Gosnold…until it can be proven otherwise.’”

Kelso acknowledges that while current evidence strongly supports the identification of Bartholomew Gosnold, future discoveries or analyses could potentially alter this conclusion. This reflects the scientific principle that knowledge is provisional and subject to change with new evidence. However, identifying Gosnold helped researchers piece together the historical puzzle of the colony’s founding and its early challenges.

“At times, masters ‘treated their dead servants like a waste product,’ said Luckenbach.”

By examining burial practices and the treatment of remains, scientists can reveal the social attitudes and practices of a society. Luckenbach emphasizes the lack of dignity and respect afforded to these individuals even in death. This treatment reflects the broader socioeconomic dynamics in early colonial America, where indentured servants were often seen as expendable labor instead of as human beings.

“‘Schmorl’s depressions are caused when the spine is compressed by some sort of trauma—for example, lifting heavy objects or twisting the back. (Schmorl’s depressions are often seen in modern weight lifters and gymnasts.)”

The forensic identification of Schmorl’s depressions provides concrete evidence of the strenuous activities that indentured servants had to perform, giving more information about their daily experiences. By comparing these depressions to those commonly found in modern weightlifters and gymnasts, the text draws a parallel between the physical demands placed on individuals in the past and those who engage in present-day high-intensity physical activities. This comparison helps the reader visualize the extent of the physical labor that the indentured servant at Leavy Neck endured.

“The chapel, a solid brick structure dedicated to Catholic worship, could not have been built anywhere else in the English-speaking world during colonial times.”

This quote demonstrates the religious freedom of colonial Maryland, which contrasted with the general religious intolerance of other English colonies. The chapel’s construction is a testament to Maryland’s unusual religious tolerance. Though the chapel was later dismantled, its foundation was so durable that it was still visible to archaeologists centuries later.

“Again, the team was ready with a solution—but this one didn’t require any cutting-edge technology. They simply filled a picnic cooler with ice.”

This approach demonstrates that effective preservation and scientific accuracy do not always necessitate complex tools. While advanced technology often plays an important role, sometimes simple, low-tech solutions are equally effective. In highlighting the use of an everyday object like a cooler, Walker aims to make science feel accessible to readers.

“In her final years, the lady would have been malnourished because she was unable to eat a variety of healthy foods. It’s likely that she was often inactive and at times bedridden due to the chronic infection and pain in her leg.”

In forensic anthropology, individual pieces of evidence combine to provide a comprehensive understanding of a person’s life. Once the researchers figured out that Anne Calvert’s diet was poor, they were able to make inferences about the other clues that they found in her skeleton. Walker leads readers through this process to partially recreate the experience of scientists.

“The truth is that she was probably trying to get better—and it may have been her own doctor who suggested she take the poison.”

The discovery of arsenic in the lead-coffin woman’s hair illustrates the paradox of historical medical treatments, where the lack of modern medical knowledge often resulted in counterproductive or fatal outcomes. In colonial America, wealth did not necessarily equate to a better life.

“Although the third coffin and its contents had provided much info, the team’s hopes of learning about seventeenth century air were dashed when Miller received the results of the lab tests on the air sample taken before the coffin was opened.”

Though the team could not draw any conclusions about the atmosphere in colonial America, Walker still chose to include the steps that they took in painstaking detail. She could have left the whole process out since it did not yield any new information, but recounting it shows that even when all of the proper protocols are followed, unexpected factors can get in the way of scientific research.

“It seems likely that the people burying the baby were unaware of the location of the previous grave. By accident, the gravediggers had disturbed the head of HK9’s grave and dislodged the skull.”

The inadvertent disturbance of HK9’s grave by the gravediggers shows how overlapping burial sites can complicate the archaeological record. Moreover, this situation reflects the challenges archaeologists face in differentiating between intentional and accidental burial practices. The burial site may have been either unmarked or poorly marked, leading to unintentional excavation.

“At this point in the investigation, no one could determine whether the colonists buried on Harleigh Knoll were servants, slaves, or free people.”

While archaeologists can use bones to determine someone’s race, gender, and age, social class can be harder to determine. Here, the absence of definitive documentation left researchers with the task of interpreting physical evidence without clear context. Archaeologists often cannot draw clear conclusions based solely on burial practices and skeletal analysis, so they need to combine historical and archaeological evidence to paint a complete picture of someone’s life.

“The creation of facial reconstructions perfectly illustrates how two seemingly different disciplines—science and art—can complement each other.”

Walker’s interdisciplinary approach recognizes the importance of art in enhancing scientific endeavors. While a scientific foundation is essential for creating a realistic and informative representation of historical figures, the final step of sculpting these reconstructions requires artistic skill to bring the data to life.

“Studying one or two skeletons can provide information about a single individual—who they were physically and what they may have experienced […]. But studying many skeletons provides information about an entire group of people—a population—their mortality [death] patterns, health, general activity patterns and even cultural practices.”

Kari Bruwelheide’s observation emphasizes the distinction between micro-level and macro-level analysis in forensic anthropology. Examining one or two skeletons can yield detailed information about specific individuals, which allows researchers to reconstruct individual life stories. Studying many skeletons together, however, provides a broader perspective, including the potential identification of cultural practices and societal norms. Patterns in burial methods, skeletal modifications, and artifacts found with the remains can reveal rituals, social hierarchies, and the cultural significance of certain practices. By comparing these findings across different groups and time periods, anthropologists can also track the evolution of cultural traditions and societal changes.